Evolution of Methods for Countering Drone-Based Airborne Threats
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1590/jatm.v18.1436Keywords:
Unmanned aerial vehicles, Air defense, Sensors, Artificial intelligence, Radar, Electromagnetic countermeasuresAbstract
The purpose of this study was to identify key stages in the evolution of air defense concepts and evaluate effective approaches to neutralizing modern airborne threats, particularly drones. The research involved analyzing open scientific sources, defense agency reports, and systematizing cases of successful counteractions to drones, with a focus on countries like Israel, Turkey, the United States of America, and Ukraine. The study found that countermeasure effectiveness depends on integrating electronic warfare, cyber tools, physical interception, and artificial intelligence (AI)-based detection algorithms. The use of sensor platforms, electromagnetic countermeasures, and software components reduced response times and improved target disabling probability without kinetic effectors. However, existing air defense systems were largely unprepared for swarm attacks from miniature drones, with conventional weapons lacking energy autonomy for prolonged counteraction. The research highlighted the need for multi-layered defense architectures with a cognitive response cycle under 5 seconds and advanced AI integration. Additionally, international cooperation and information exchange were crucial for developing sustainable early warning systems. The study’s findings can inform the modernization of national air defense programs and regulatory frameworks addressing unmanned technology challenges.
References
[DoD] United States Department of Defense (2013) Unmanned systems integrated roadmap, FY2013 2038. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA592015.pdf
[DoD] United States Department of Defense (2023) 2023 data, analytics, and artificial intelligence adoption strategy fact sheet. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://media.defense.gov/2024/Oct/25/2003571622/-1/-1/0/2023-11-DOD-DATA-ANALYTICSAI-ADOPTION-STRATEGY-FACTSHEET_C.PDF
[IISS] International Institute for Strategic Studies (2024) Turkiye’s defence industry: which way forward [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.iiss.org/globalassets/media-library---content--migration/files/research-papers/2024/11/trk-5/iiss_turkiyesdefence-industry-which-way-forward_13112024.pdf
[INSS] Institute for National Security Studies (2023) Strategic analysis for Israel 2023: Israel among the world’s democracies. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.inss.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/StrategicAssessment22-23_ENG.pdf
[MND] Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Korea (2022) 2022 Defense white paper. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.mnd.go.kr/cop/pblictn/selectPublicationUser.do?siteId=mndEN&componentId=51&categoryId=0&publicationSeq=1057&pageIndex=1&id=mndEN_031300000000
[MoAF] Ministry of the Armed Forces of France (2023) Essaims: menaces et opportunités. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.defense.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/dgris/EPS%202022-01%20-%20Essaims%20de%20drones%20ae%CC%81riens%2C%20menaces%20et%20opportunite%CC%81s.pdf
[UN] United Nations (2024) Workshop on vulnerable targets protection and unmanned aircraft systems in Togo. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/events/workshop-vulnerable-targets-protection-and-unmanned-aircraftsystems-togo
Ali MR, Qureshi B, Manzoor A (2025) Cyber security and artificial intelligence: revolutionary trends creating the future. J Cyber Secur Risk Audit 1(1). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14911281
Almuqren AA (2025) Cybersecurity threats, countermeasures and mitigation techniques on the IoT: future research directions. J Cyber Secur Risk Audit 1(1). https://doi.org/10.63180/jcsra.thestap.2025.1.1
Barlybayev A, Sharipbay A, Shakhmetova G, Zhumadillayeva A (2024) Development of a flexible information security risk model using machine learning methods and ontologies. Appl Sci (Basel) 14(21):9858. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219858
Barlybayev A, Turginbayeva A (2025) Development and implementation of an advanced fuzzy expert system for the assessment of information security risks. J Comput Cogn Eng 4(4):570-580. https://doi.org/10.47852/bonviewJCCE52024683
Basak S, Rajendran S, Pollin S, Scheers B (2021) Combined RF-based drone detection and classification. IEEE Trans Cogn Commun Netw 8(1):111-120. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCCN.2021.3099114
Best K, Schmid J, Tierney S, Awan J, Beyene N, Holliday MA, Khan R, Lee K (2020) How to analyse the cyber threat from drones: background, analysis frameworks, and analysis tools. RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2972
Çetin E, Barrado C, Salamí E, Pastor E (2024) Analysing deep reinforcement learning model decisions with Shapley additive explanations for counter drone operations. Appl Intell 54(23):12095-12111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10489-024-05733-2
Cherniha R, Serov M (2006) Symmetries, ansätze and exact solutions of nonlinear second-order evolution equations with convection terms, II. Eur J Appl Math 17(5):597-605. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956792506006681
Constantinescu M, Dumitrache VI (2022) Artificial intelligence and the future of defence planning and resources management. Knowl Based Organ 28(1):180-186. https://doi.org/10.2478/kbo-2022-0027
Dahan E, Aviv I, Diskin T (2025a) Aerial imagery redefined: next-generation approach to object classification. Information (Basel) 16(2):134. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020134
Dahan E, Aviv I, Kiperberg M (2025b) Trust domain extensions guest fuzzing framework for security vulnerability detection. Mathematics (Basel) 13(11):1879. https://doi.org/10.3390/math13111879
Deleforge A, Carlo DD. Strauß M, Serizel R, Marcenaro L (2019) Audio-based search and rescue with a drone: highlights from the IEEE signal processing cup 2019 student competition [SP Competitions]. IEEE Signal Process Mag 36(5):138-144. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2019.2924687
Esposito CC, Attademo G, Miano F (2024) Blockchain and AI ethics: implications for defence and security. Paper presented 2024 International Workshop on Technologies for Defence and Security. IEEE; Naples, Italy. https://doi.org/10.1109/TechDefense63521.2024.10863108
Feng W, Hu X, He X (2024) Artificial intelligence (AI)-based radar signal processing and radar imaging. Electronics (Basel) 13(21):4251. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13214251
Fetter S, Sankaran J (2024) Emerging technologies and challenges to nuclear stability. J Strateg Stud 48(2):252-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2024.2433766
Gao B (2023) Unmanned aircraft swarm detection method based on RF features and unsupervised learning. Paper presented 2023 3rd International Conference on Communication Technology and Information Technology. IEEE; Xian, China. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCTIT60726.2023.10435965
Gonzalez-Jorge H, Aldao E, Fontenla-Carrera C, Veiga-Lopez F, Balvis E, Rios-Otero E (2024) Counter drone technology: a review. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202402.0551.v1
Gospodinova E, Nenov D (2024) Mathematical modeling based on neural network learning for object recognition in automated systems. WSEAS Trans Syst Control 19:427-435. https://doi.org/10.37394/23203.2024.19.46
Gu YF, Duan XQ, Xu YW, Shi Y, Zhu M, Feng XD, Zhang WZ, Korzhyk V (2024) Preparation of ultra-thick, crack-free, titanium nitride coatings using a full-domain power-modulated laser. J Manuf Process 113:346-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.01.079
Gurbuz S, Amin MG (2019) Radar-based human-motion recognition with deep learning: promising applications for indoor monitoring. IEEE Signal Process Mag 36(4):16-28. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2018.2890128
Hashimov EG, Xudeynatov E (2024) Methodology for assessing the effectiveness of the air defence system. Navigation and Communication Control Systems Collection of Scientific Papers 1(75):21-27. https://doi.org/10.26906/SUNZ.2024.1.021
Hula V, Hryha V (2024) Analysis of the current state of the art of sensors for inertial navigation of unmanned aerial vehicles. Technol Eng 25(4):29-47. https://doi.org/10.30857/2786-5371.2024.4.3
Iman KF, Triharjanto RH, Wibowo HB, Ruyat Y (2023) Comparative analysis of a multi-layered weapon system for city air defence in the modern warfare. Int J Humanit Educ Soc Sci 3(3):1351-1361. https://doi.org/10.55227/ijhess.v3i3.720
Jiang W, Ren Y, Liu Y, Leng J (2022) Artificial neural networks and deep learning techniques applied to radar target detection: a review. Electronics (Basel) 11(1):156. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11010156
Jiang W, Wang Y, Li Y, Lin Y, Shen W (2023) Radar target characterization and deep learning in radar automatic target recognition: a review. Remote Sens (Basel) 15(15):3742. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15153742
Khawaja W, Semkin V, Ratyal NI, Yaqoob Q, Gul J, Guvenc I (2022) Threats from and countermeasures for unmanned aerial and underwater vehicles. Sensors (Basel) 22(10):3896. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22103896
Korzhyk V, Bushma O, Khaskin V, Dong C, Sydorets V (2017) Analysis of the current state of the processes of hybrid laserplasma welding. Paper presented 2017 2nd International Conference on Mechanics, Materials and Structural Engineering. ICMMSE Committee; Beijing, China. https://doi.org/10.2991/ICMMSE-17.2017.14
Manesh MR, Kaabouch N (2019) Cyber attacks on unmanned aerial system networks: detection, countermeasure, and future research directions. Comput Secur 85:386-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2019.05.003
Masum MR (2025) Advanced radar and RF signal processing for drone swarm detection training by Tonex. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389227965_Advanced_Radar_and_RF_Signal_Processing_for_Drone_Swarm_Detection_Training_by_Tonex
Panait C (2025) Challenges regarding the integration and interoperability of air defence within NATO. Land Forces Acad Rev 30(1):19-26. https://doi.org/10.2478/raft-2025-0002
Park S, Kim HT, Lee S, Joo H, Kim H (2021) Survey on anti-drone systems: components, designs, and challenges. IEEE Access 9:42635-42659. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3065926
Petrov N, Sydykova G, Dimitrova K, Gospodinova E, Tlegenov A, Shegenbaeva R (2023) Study of the sustainability of functioning of electronic apparatus. AIP Conf Proc 2889(1):050006. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0173012
Pozzi C, Pontani M, Fantino E, Beolchi A (2024) Optimal low-thrust orbit transfers connecting gateway with Earth and Moon. Acta Astronaut 228:1107-1121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.11.040
Reuters (2024) Ukraine says it downed 47 Russia-launched drones, 25 fail to reach targets. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraine-says-it-shot-down-47-russia-launched-drones-2024-12-23/
Romaniuk А, Biеliaіev P (2025) Choice of artificial intelligence methods to increase the efficiency of control points of air defence forces and means. Scientific Papers of the State Research Institute for Testing and Certification of Armaments and Military Equipment 23(1):100-108. https://doi.org/10.37701/dndivsovt.23.2025.13
Rugo A, Ardagna CA, Ioini NE (2022) A security review in the UAVNet era: threats, countermeasures, and gap analysis. ACM Comput Surv 55(1):21. https://doi.org/10.1145/3485272
Seidaliyeva U, Ilipbayeva L, Taissariyeva K, Smailov N, Matson E (2023) Advances and challenges in drone detection and classification techniques: a state-of-the-art review. Sensors (Basel) 24(1):125. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24010125
Seidaliyeva U, Smailov N (2025) Leveraging drone technology for enhanced safety and route planning in rock climbing and extreme sports training. Retos 63:598-609. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v63.110869
Smailov N, Akmardin S, Ayapbergenova A, Ayapbergenova G, Kadyrova R, Sabibolda A (2025) Analysis of VLC efficiency in optical wireless communication systems for indoor applications. Inform Autom Pomiary Gospod Ochr Sr 15(2):135-138. https://doi.org/10.35784/iapgos.6971
Trofymenko O, Loginova N, Sokolov A, Chykunov P, Akhmametieva H (2024) Artificial intelligence in the military. Cybersecur Educ Sci Tech 1(25):161-176. https://doi.org/10.28925/2663-4023.2024.25.161176
Unmanned Systems Forces of Ukraine (2024) Unmanned Systems Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. [accessed Mar 26 2026]. https://usforces.army/en/#about
Volkov A, Brechka M, Stadnichenko V, Yaroshchuk V, Cherkashyn S (2023) The protection of critical infrastructure facilities from air strikes due to compatible use of various forces and means. Mach Energy 14(4):23-32. https://doi.org/10.31548/machinery/4.2023.23
Volkov A, Cherkashyn S, Brechka M, Stadnichenko V, Popadiuk R (2025) Joint operations analysis of air defence radar and electronic warfare facilities in critical infrastructure protection from air attacks. Syst Logist Wojsk 62(1):137-158. https://doi.org/10.37055/slw/211043
Volkov A, Stadnichenko V, Yaroshchuk V, Halkin Y, Tokar O (2024) Proposals for the implementation of a decision support system for air defence fire control based on fuzzy networks of targets. Syst Logist Wojsk 61(2):211-228. https://doi.org/10.37055/slw/203558
Vuk P (2020) Challenges to military strategy in the 21st century. Contemp Mil Chall 21:129-151. https://doi.org/10.33179/BSV.99.SVI.11.CMC.22.1.8
Wang X, Wang Y, Su X, Wang L, Lu C, Peng H, Liu J (2023) Deep reinforcement learning-based air combat manoeuvre decision-making: literature review, implementation tutorial and future direction. Artif Intell Rev 57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-023-10620-2
Wójcik W, Kalizhanova A, Kulyk YA, Knysh BP, Kvyetnyy RN, Kulyk AI, Sichko TV, Dumenko VP, Bezstmertna OV, Adikhanova S, et al. (2022) The method of time distribution for environment monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles according to an inverse priority. J Ecol Eng 23(11):179-187. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/153458
Yaroshenko R, Onykiienko Yu (2025) Computer modelling of LoRa network parameters using the FLoRa simulator. Technol Eng 26(1):79-88. https://doi.org/10.30857/2786-5371.2025.1.7
Yoo S, Jang D (2023) Analysis of defence effectiveness in cooperative engagement for multi-layered missile defence system with differing ballistic missile trajectories. J Inst Control Robot Syst 29(8):671-678. https://doi.org/10.5302/J.ICROS.2023.23.0058
Yu A, Kolotylo I, Hashim HA, Eltoukhy AE (2025) Electronic warfare cyberattacks, countermeasures and modern defensive strategies of UAV avionics: a survey. EEE Access 13:68660-68681. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.07358
Zhang P, Feng K, Gong J, Yang X, Shen J (2024) A systematic effectiveness evaluation method for air defence operations based on deep confidence networks. Research Square (preprint). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4164113/v1
Zhao M, Wang G, Fu Q, Guo X, Li T (2023) Deep reinforcement learning‐based air defence decision‐making using potential games. Advanced intelligent systems. Adv Intell Syst 5(10):2300151. https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202300151
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Andrii Volkov, Serhii Oriehov, Volodymyr Stadnichenko, Oleksandr Tokar, Vitalii Yaroshchuk
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons — Attribution 4.0 International — CC BY 4.0. Authors are free to Share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) and Adapt (remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially). JATM allow the authors to retain publishing rights without restrictions.
